The Mauryan Dynasty

Mauryan empire

Chandragupta Maurya History (322 – 297 BC):

• With the help of Chanakya, known as Kautilya or Vishnugupta, he overthrew the Nandas & established the rule of the Maurya dynasty.

• Chandragupta is called Sandrocottus by the Greek scholars.

• Seleucus Necater was one of the generals of Alexander and after his death, had succeeded in gaining control of most of the Asiatic provinces.

• Chandragupta defeated him in 305 BC and was compelled to yield parts of Afghanistan to Chandragupta. There was also a marriage alliance between the two families.

• Built a vast empire, which included not only good portions of Bihar and Bengal, but also western and north western India and the Deccan.

• This account is given by Megasthenes (A Greek ambassador sent by Seleucus to the court of Chandragupta Maurya) in his book Indica. We also get the details from the Arthashastra of Kautilya.

• Chandragupta adopted Jainism and went to Sravanabelagola (near Mysore) with Bhadrabahu, where he died by slow starvation.

• Vishakhadatta wrote a drama Mudrarakshasa (describing Chandragupta’s enemy) & Debi Chandraguptam in sixth century AD.

History of Bindusara (297 – 273 BC):

• Called Amitraghat by Greek writers.

• Chandragupta was succeeded by his son Bindusara in 297 BC. He is said to have conquered ‘the land between the 2 seas’, i.e., the Arabian Sea & Bay of Bengal. At the time of his death, almost the entire subcontinent came under the Mauryan rule. Greek Ambassador, Deimachos visited his court.

• History of Ashoka (269 – 232 BC):

• Ashoka was appointed the Viceroy of Taxila and Ujjain by his father, Bindusara. He was at Ujjain when Bindusara, died. His formal coronation was delayed for four years, suggesting a disputed succession. A Buddhist literature says that he came to throne after killing his 99 brothers.

• Regarded as one of the greatest kings of all times. He was the first ruler to maintain direct contact with people through his inscription.

• In his inscriptions following languages have been used:

• Brahmi, Kharoshthi, Armaic and Greek. (James Princep first deciphered the inscriptions).

• Ashoka became the Buddhist under Upagupta.

Extent of Empire: His Empire covered the whole territory from Hindukush to Bengal & extended over Afghanistan, Baluchistan & whole of India with the exception of a small area in the farthest south. Kashmir and Valleys of Nepal were also included, first empire to do so.

Ashoka after Kalinga War

The Kalinga War History: (261 BC, mentioned in XIII rock edict). It changed his attitude towards life. Ashoka became a Buddhist after that.

Aspects of Ashoka’s Reign:

• Ashok’s empire was divided into provinces with a viceroy in each province. He established Dhramshalas, hospitals and Sarais throughout his kingdom.

• He appointed Dharma Mahapatras to propagate dharma among various social groups including women.

• He organized a network of missionaries to preach the doctrine both in his kingdom and beyond. He sent them to Ceylon, Burma (sent his son Mahindra & daughter Sanghamitra to Ceylon) and other south-east Asian regions, notably Thailand.

• Ashoka is called ‘Buddhashakya & Ashok’ in Maski edict and ‘Dharmasoka’ in Sarnath inscription. He was also known as ‘Devanampiya’- beloved of the gods, and ‘Piyadassi’- of pleasing appearance.

Significance of Mauryan Rule:

• The emblem of the Indian Republic has been adopted from the 4 – lion capital of the Ashokan pillar at Sarnath.

• Gurukuls & Buddhist monasteries developed with royal patronage. Universities of Taxila & Banaras are the gifts of this era.

• Kautilya’s Arthashastra, Bhadrabahu’s Kalpa Sutra, Buddhist texts like the Katha Vatthu & Jain texts such as Bhagwati Sutra, Acharanga Sutra and Dasavakalik comprise some of the important literature of this era.

Causes of the fall of Mauryan Empire:

• Ashoka’s patronage of Buddhism and his anti-sacrificial attitude is said to have affected the income of the Brahmins. So they developed antipathy against Ashoka.

• Revenue from agrarian areas was not sufficient to maintain such a vast empire as booty from war was negligible.

• Successors of Ashoka were too weak to keep together such a large centralized empire.

• The last Mauryan king Brihadratha was killed by Pushyamitra Shunga (Commander in Chief) in 185 BC, who started the Shunga dynasty in Magadha.

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The Magadha Empire

Period of Magadha Empire : 6th Century – 4th Century BC.

Extent of Magadha Empire : Magadha embraced the former districts of Patna, Gaya & parts of Shahabad & grew to be the leading state of the time.

Haryanka Dynasty : Originally founded in 566 BC by the grandfather of Bimbisara, but actual foundation by Bimbisara.

King Bimbisara of Magadha (544 BC – 492 BC):

• Contemporary of Buddha.

• He conquered Anga (E.Bihar) to gain control over trade route with the southern states.

• His capital was Rajgir (Girivraja). He strengthened his position by matrimonial alliance with the ruling families of Kosala, Vaishali, and Madra (3 wives).

• His capital was surrounded by 5 hills, the openings in which were closed by stone walls on all sides. This made Rajgir impregnable.

Ajatshatru History (492 BC – 460 BC):

• Son of Bimbisara killed his father & seized the throne.

• Annexed Vaishali and Kosala (annexed Vaishali with the help of a war engine, which was used to throw stones like catapults. Also possessed a chariot to which a mace was attached, thus facilitating mass killings). Kosala was ruled by Prasenajit at that time.

• Buddha died during his reign; arranged the first Buddhist Council.

History of Udayin (460 – 444 BC): He founded the new capital at Pataliputra, situated at the confluence of the Ganga & Son.

Shishunaga Dynasty :

• Founded by a minister Shishunaga. He was succeeded by Kalasoka (II Buddhist council). Dynasty lasted for two generations only.

• Greatest achievement was the destruction of power of Avanti.

Nanda Dynasty:

• It is considered first of the non-Kshatriya dynasties.

• Founder was Mahapadma Nanda. He added Kalinga to his empire. He claimed to be the ekarat, the sole sovereign who destroyed all the other ruling princes.

• Alexander attacked India in their reign. Dhana Nanda was there at that time.

• Nandas were fabulously rich & enormously powerful. Maintained 200,000 infantry, 60,000 cavalry & 6,000 war elephants. This is supposed to have checked Alexander’s army from advancing towards Magadha.

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Jainism in India

Lord Mahavira

History of Jainism Religion:

• Founded by Rishabhanath.

• There were 24 tirthankaras (Prophetsor Gurus), all Kshatriyas.First was Rishabhanath (Emblem: Bull). His reference is also 4n Rigveda. But there is no historical basis for the first 22 Tirthankaras. Only the last two Tirthankaras are historical personalities.

• The 23rd Tirthankar Parshwanath (Emblem: Snake) was the son of King Ashvasena of Banaras. His main teachings were: Non-injury, Non-lying, Non-stealing, Non-possession.

• The 24th and the last Tirthankar was Vardhman Mahavira (Emblem: Lion).

Vardhman Mahavira History:

• He was born in Kundagram (Distt Muzafffarpur, Bihar) in 599 BC.

• His father Siddhartha was the head of Jnatrika clan. His mother was Trishla, sister of Lichchavi   Prince Chetak of Vaishali.

• Mahavira was related to Bimbisara.

• Married to Yashoda, had a daughter named Priyadarsena, whose husband Jamali became his first disciple.

• At 30, after the death of his parents, he became an ascetic.

• In the 13th year of his asceticism (on the 10th of Vaishakha), outside the town of Jrimbhikgrama, he attained supreme knowledge (Kaivalya).

• From now on he was called Jaina or Jitendriya and Mahavira, and his followers were named Jains. He also got the title of Arihant, i.e., worthy.

• At the age of 72, he attained death at Pava, near Patna, in 527 BC.

• Mahavira preached almost the same message as Parshvanath and added one more, Brahmcharya (celibacy) to it.

• After the death of Mahavira, during the reign of King Chandragupta Maurya, a severe famine led to a great exodus of Jain monks from the Ganga valley to the Deccan, where they established important centers of their faith.

• This migration led to a great schism in Jainism. Bhadrabahu, who led the emigrants, insisted on the retention of the rule of nudity which Mahavira had established.

• Sthulabhadra, the leader of the monks who remained in the north, allowed his followers to wear white garments, owing to the hardships and confusions of the famine. Hence arose the two sects of the Jains, the Digambaras (sky-clad, i.e., naked) and the Svetambaras (white-clad).

Teachings of Mahavira:

1. Rejected the authority of the Vedas and do not attach any importance to the performance of sacrifices.

2. He believed that every object, even the smallest particle, possesses a soul and is endowed with consciousness. That is why they observe strict non-violence.

3. The Jains reject the concept of a Universal Soul or a Supreme Power as the creator or Sustainer of the universe.

4. Jainism does not deny the existence of gods but refuses to give gods any important part in die universe scheme. Gods are placed lower than the Jina.

5. Attainment of salvation (moksha) by believing in penance and dying of starvation (Main difference between Jainism and Buddhism).

6. Universal brotherhood (non-belief in caste system).

Note: In Jainism, three Ratnas (Triratnas) are given and they are called the way to Nirvana. They are Right Faith, Right Knowledge and Right Conduct.

History of Jain Councils:

First Council : Held at Pataliputra by Sthulabhadra in the beginning of third century BC. It resulted in the compilation of 12 Angas to replace 14 Purvas.

Second Council : It was held at Vallabhi (Gujarat) in the fifth century AD under the leadership of Devridhigani. It resulted in final compilation of 12 Angas and 12 Upangas.

Causes of Decline of Jainism:

• Jainism reached the highest point in Chandragupta Maurya’s time. In Kalinga, it was greatly patronized by Kharavela in the first century AD.

• Various factors were responsible for the decline of Jainism in India. They took the concept of Ahimsa too far. They advised that one should not take medicine when one fell sick because the medicine killed germs.

• They believed that there was life in trees and vegetables and so refrained from harming them. Such practices could not become popular with common man. There was moreover no patronage from the later kings.

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Buddhism in India

Ancient Buddhism in India:

Buddhism stands for 3 pillars:

• Buddha : Its Founder.

• Dhamma : His Teachings.

• Sangha : Order of Buddhist monks and nuns.

The Buddha History :

• Also known as Sakyamuni or Tathagata.

• Born in 563 BC on the Vaishakha Poornima Day at Lumbini (near Kapilavastu) in Nepal.

• His father Suddhodana was the Saka ruler.His mother (Mahamaya, of Kosala dynasty) died after 7 days of his birth. Brought up by stepmother Gautami.

• Married at 16 to Yoshodhara. Enjoyed the married life for 13 years and had a son named Rahula.

• After seeing an old man, a sick man, a corpse and an ascetic, he decided to become a wanderer.

• Left his palace at the age of 29 (with Channa, the charioteer and his favourite horse, Kanthaka) in search of truth (also called ‘Mahabhinishkramana’ or The Great Renunciation) and wandered for 6 years.

• He first meditated with Alara Kalama. But he was not convinced that man could obtain liberation from sorrow by mental discipline and knowledge. His next teacher was Udraka Ramputra. He then joined forces with five ascetics- Kondana, Vappa, Bhadiya, Mahanama and Assagi, who were practicing the most rigorous self mortification in the hope of wearing away their karma and obtaining final bliss.

• For six years he tortured himself until he was nothing but a walking skeleton. But after six years, he felt that his fasts and penance had been useless. So he abandoned these things. The five disciples also left him.

• Attained ‘Nirvana’ or ‘Enlightenment’ at 35 at Gaya in Magadha (Bihar) under the Pipal tree.

• Delivered the first sermon at Sarnath where his five disciples had settled. His first sermon is called ‘Dharmachakrapravartan’ or ‘Turning of the Wheel of Law’.

• Attained Mahaparinirvana at Kushinagar (identical with village Kasia in Deoria district of UP) in 483 BC at the ageof 80 in the Malla republic.

The Dhamma Indian History:

1. The Four Great Truths:

• The world is full of sorrow and misery.

• The cause of all pain and misery is desire.

• Pain and misery can be ended by killing or controlling desire.

• Desire can be controlled by following the Eight Fold Path.

2. The Eight Fold Path: It consists of Right Faith, Right Thought, Right Action, Right Livelihood, Right Efforts, Right Speech, Right Remembrance and Right Concentration.

3. Belief in Nirvana:

• When desire ceases, rebirth ceases and nirvana is attained i.e. freedom from the cycle of birth, death and rebirth is gained by following the 8-fold path.

• According to Buddha, soul is a myth.

4. Belief in Ahimsa: One should not cause injury to any living being, animal or man.

5. Law of Karma: Man reaps the fruits of his past deeds.

The Sangha History:

• Consists of monks (Bhikshus or Shramanas) and nuns.

• Bhikshus acted as a torch bearer of the dhamma.

• Apart from Sangha, the worshippers were called Upasakas.

Buddhist Councils: 

The monks gathered 4 times after the death of Buddha and the effect of these events had their effect on Buddhism.

First Council: At Rajgriha, in 483 BC under the chairman ship of Mehakassaapa (King was Ajatshatru). Divided the teachings of Buddha into two Pitakas – Vihaya Pitaka and Sutta Pitaka. Upali recited the Vinaya Pitaka and Ananda recited the Sutta Pitaka.

Second Council: At Vaishali, in 383 BC under Sabakami (King was Kalasoka). Followers divided into Sthavirmadins and Mahasanghikas.

Third Council: At Pataliputra, in 250 BC under Mogaliputta Tissa (King was Ashoka). In this, the third part of the Tripitaka was coded in the Pali language.

Fourth Council: At Kashmir (Kundalvan), in 72 AD under Vasumitra (King was Kanishka). Vice-Chairman was Ashwaghosha. Divided Buddhism into Mahayana and Hinayana sects.

Note:

•  In Mahayana, idol worship is there. It became popular in China, Japan, Korea, Afghanistan, Turkey and other SE countries.
•  Hinayana became popular in Magadha and SriLanka. It believed in individual salvation and not in idol-worship.
•  Apart from these 2, there is a third vehicle, called ‘Vajrayana’, which appeared in 8th century and grew rapidly in Bihar and Bengal. They did not treat meat, fish, wine, etc, as a taboo in dietary habit and freely consumed them.

 Buddist Literature:

• In Pali language.

• Buddhist scriptures in Pali are commonly referred to as Tripitakas, ie ‘Threefold Basket’.

Vinaya Pitaka : Rules of discipline in Buddhist monasteries.

Sutta Pitaka : Largest, contains collection of Buddha’s sermons.

Abhidhamma Pitaka : Explanation of the philosophical principles of the Buddhist religion.

Note:

1.      Mahavansh and Deepvansh are the other Buddhist texts. They provide information about the then SriLanka.

2.      Jataks are the fables about the different births of Buddha.

Causes of decline of Buddhism:

1. It succumbed to the Brahmanic rituals and ceremonies, such as idol worship, etc, which Buddhism had    earlier denounced.

2. Revival of reformed Hinduism with the preaching of Shankaracharya from ninth century onwards.

3. Use of Sanskrit, the language of intellectuals, in place of Pali, the language of the common people.

4. Deterioration in the moral standards among the monks living in Buddhist monasteries.

5. Entry of women into Buddhist monasteries.

6. Attacks of Huna king Mihirkula in the sixth century and the Turkish invaders in the twelfth century AD.

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DECCAN SULTANATES

Overview

• The Deccan Sultanates were five Muslim ruled kingdoms located in the Deccan plateau.
• They ruled south central India from 1527 to 1686.
• The Deccan Sultanates were established following the breakup of the Bahmani Sultanate in 1527.
• The five kingdoms of the Deccan Sultanates were
• Ahmadnagar (1490-1636)
• Bijapur (1490-1686)
• Berar (1490-1572)
• Golkonda (1518-1687)
• Bidar (1528-1619)
• The Deccan Sultanates were generally rivals but united against the Vijayanagara Empire in the Battle of Tallikota in 1565.
• An important cultural contribution of the Deccan Sultanates was the development of Dakhani Urdu – drawn from Arabic, Persian, Marathi, Kannada and Telugu.
• The period is also famous for the development of Deccani miniature paintings, which flourished in Ahmadnagar, Bijapur and Golkonda.

Ahmadnagar Sultanate

• The Ahmadnagar Sultanate was located in northwestern Deccan, between the Gujarat and Bijapur sultanate.
• The Sultanate was established by Malik Ahmad in 1490, who founded the Nizam Shahi dynasty.
• The capital city of the Sultanate was initially Junnar, which was later shifted to Ahmadnagar.
• The earliest examples of miniature paintings are found in the manuscript Tarif-i-Hussain Shahi (c. 1565).
• This period is also known for the encyclopaedia Nrisimha Prasada written by Dalapati.
• The Ahmadnagar Sultanate was annexed into the Mughal Empire by Aurangzeb (during the reign of Shah Jahan) in 1636.

Berar Sultanate

• The Berar Sultanate was established by Imad-ul Mulk in 1490.
• It was annexed by the Ahmadnagar Sultanate in 1572.

Bidar Sultanate

• The Bidar Sultanate was established by Qasim Barid in 1490.
• Bidar was sandwiched between the Ahmadnagar, Bijapur and Golconda sultanates.
• Bidar was annexed by Ibrahim Adil Shah II of the Bijapur Sultanate in 1619.
• An important type of metalwork called Bidri originated in Bidar. These metalworks were carried out on black metal (mainly zinc) with inlaid designs of silver, brass and copper.

Bijapur Sultanate

• The Bijapur Sultanate was established by Yusuf Adil Shah in 1490, who founded the Adil Shahi dynasty.
• The Bijapur Sultanate was located in northern Karnataka, with its capital at Bijapur.
• Under the Adil Shahi dynasty, Bijapur became an important centre of commerce and culture in India.
• The Begum Talab was a 234 acre tank constructed by Mohammad Adil Shah in 1651 in memory of Jahan Begum. Underground pipes, encased in masonry supplied water from the tank to the city residents.
• Ibrahim Adil Shah II wrote a book of songs in Dakhani urdu called Kitab-i-Navras. This work contains a number of songs set to different ragas.
• The Bijapur Sultanate was annexed into the Mughal Empire by Aurangzeb in 1686.

  

   Qutb Shahi Tombs, Hyderabad

Golconda Sultanate

• The Golconda Sultanate was established in 1518 by Qutb-ul-Mulk, who founded the Qutb Shahi dynasty.
• The Golconda Sultanate was located in northern Andhra Pradesh.
• The capital city was Hyderabad.
• The Qutb Shahi dynasty was responsible for the construction of the Jami Masjid (1518), Charminar (1591) and Mecca Masjid (1617).
• Another famous structure from the period is the fort of Golconda.
• The Shahi dynasty was instrumental in the development of Dakhani urdu.
• Muhammad Quli Qutb Shah wrote the Kulliyat-i-Muhammad Quli Qutb Shah in Dakhani urdu.
• Golconda was annexed into the Mughal Empire by Aurangzeb in 1687.

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DELHI SULTANATE

Overview

• The Delhi Sultanate was a period from the 13^th to the 16^th centuries when several Turkic and Afghan dynasties ruled northern India from Delhi
• The dynasties of the Delhi Sultanate were
• Mamluk dynasty (1206-1290)
• Khilji dynasty (1290-1320)
• Tughlaq dynasty (1320-1413)
• Sayyid dynasty (1414-1451)
• Lodi dynasty (1451-1526)
• The Delhi Sultanate was established upon the death of Muhammad Ghori in 1206 CE and was absorbed by the newly emerging Mughal Empire in 1526 CE.

Mamluk Dynasty

• Also known as the Slave Dynasty, the Mamluk dynasty was the first dynasty of the Delhi Sultanate and ruled from 1206-1290 CE
• The Mamluks were essentially a Turkic people
• It was established by Qutub-ud-din-Aybak, a slave and general of Muhammad Ghori, who took over Ghori’s Indian territories following the latter’s death in 1206 CE
• Important rulers of the Mamluk dynasty include
• Qutub-ud-din-Aybak (1206-1210 CE)
• Shams-ud-din-Iltutmish (1211-1236)
• Razia Sultana (1236-1240)
• Ghiyas-ud-din-Balban (1266-1287)
• The Qutub Minar (New Delhi) was commissioned by Qutub-ud-din-Aybak in 1193 CE. At 72.5 m, it is the world’s tallest brick minaret and is one of the earliest and most prominent examples of Indo-Islamic architecture. It is part of the Qutub Complex – a UNESCO World Heritage Site.
• Balban’s tomb is located in Mehrauli, New Delhi
• The Sultan Ghari, also in New Delhi, is the oldest Islamic mausoleum in India. It was built by Iltutmish for his son Nasir-ud-din Mahmud in 1231 CE
• Razia Sultana was the first female ruler of a Muslim kingdom anywhere in the world

Khilji Dynasty

• The Khiljis were the second dynasty to rule the Delhi Sultanate. They ruled north and northwestern India 1290-1320 CE.
• They were Turko-Afghan people.
• The greatest ruler of the Khilji dynasty was Ala-ud-din-Khilji (1296-1316 CE).
• Khilji attacked Chittor in 1303 after hearing of the beauty of queen Padmini, wife of king Rawal Ratan Singh. This event is the setting of the epic poem Padmavat written by Malik Muhammad Jayasi (in 1540 CE), in the Awadhi language.
• Khilji’s plunder of Gujarat in 1297 CE is noted for the loot of the Somnath temple and the destruction of the Sivalingam into pieces.
• Ala-ud-din-Khilji is noted for the first Muslim invasions of southern India. Khilji’s general, Malik Kafur, conquered Devagiri and Warangal, caused the collapse of the Hoysalas, and went as far south as Madurai, which was occupied for a brief period of time.
• Ala-ud-din-Khilji’s most important achievement was repelling repeated Mongol invasions of India between 1294 CE and 1308 CE, which would inevitably have brought destruction and devastation on a colossal scale.

Tughlaq Dynasty

• The Tughlaq dynasty ruled from 1321 to 1394 CE.
• They were of Turkic origin.
• The Tughlaq dynasty was founded by Ghiyas al-din Tughlaq in 1321 CE.
• The most important ruler of the Tughlaq dynasty was Muhammad bin Tughlaq (1325-1351 CE).
• Muhammad bin Tughlaq was a renown scholar, was tolerant towards other religions and an innovative administrator. However, his experiments in reforming public administration often failed, earning him much satire.
• He was responsible for the expansion of the Delhi Sultanate southwards into the Deccan region.
• In order to strengthen his hold on newly conquered territories in peninsular India, Muhammad bin Tughlaq moved the capital of the Sultanate from Delhi to Devagiri in Maharashtra (which was renamed Daulatabad). Due to poor planning and facilities, the capital had to be moved back to Delhi two years later.
• Muhammad bin Tughlaq also introduced copper-based token currency, the first such experiment in India. Although the copper currency was backed by gold and silver in government reserves, the switch was not embraced by the public and the experiment had to be abandoned.
• Muhammad bin Tughlaq was succeeded by his cousin Firoz Shah Tughlaq (1351-1388 CE). Firoz Shah Tughlaq re-built the top two storeys of the Qutub Minar with white marble, when the earlier structure was partially destroyed by lightning.

Sayyid Dynasty

• The Sayyid dynasty ruled the Delhi Sultanate from 1414 CE to 1451 CE.
• The Sayyid’s came to power following a power vacuum induced by Timur’s invasion and devastation of Delhi in 1398 CE.

Lodi Dynasty

• The Lodi dynasty ruled the Delhi Sultanate from 1451 CE to 1526.
• They were of Afghan origin.
• The Lodi dynasty was founded by Bahlul Khan Lodi in 1451 CE.
• Sikandar Lodi (1489 CE-1517) founded the city of Agra in 1504. He attacked Gwalior five times but was repulsed each time by Maharaja Mansingh of Gwalior.
• The last ruler of the Lodi dynasty was Ibrahim Lodi (1489 CE-1526).
• Ibrahim Lodi was defeated by the Afghan Mughal Babur in the Battle of Panipat in 1526. With this, the Delhi Sultanate was dissolved and the Mughal Empire was established.

Legacy of the Delhi Sultanate

• Perhaps the greatest contribution of the Delhi Sultanate was insulating the Indian subcontinent from the devastation of Mongol invasions in the 13^th century.
• However, the Delhi Sultanate failed to prevent the sacking of Delhi by Timur (aka Tamerlane). Timur sacked and pillaged Delhi in 1398 CE, leading to widespread devastation and destruction.
• The Delhi Sultanate established a network of market centres through which traditional village economies were both exploited and stimulated.
• Agricultural practices of shifting to cash crops (like sugarcane) instead of food crops were encouraged.

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Important National Movements, Pacts, Conferences of Indian History

The Indian National Congress:

§  Formed in 1885 by A.O.Hume, an Englishman and a retired civil servant.

§  First session in Bombay under W.C.Banerjee in 1885 (72 delegates attended it).

§  In the first two decades (1885 – 1905), quite moderate in its approach and confided in British justice and generosity.

§  But the repressive measures of the British gave rise to extremists within Congress like Bipin Chandra Pal, Bal Gangadhar Tilak and Lala Lajpat Rai (Lal, Bal, Pal).

Partition of Bengal:

§  By Lord Curzon on Oct 16, 1905, through a royal Proclamation, reducing the old province of Bengal in size by creating East Bengal and Assam out of rest of Bengal.

§  The objective was to set up a communal gulf between Hindus and Muslims.

§  A mighty upsurge swept the country against the partition. National movement found real expression in the movement against the partition of Bengal in 1905.

Formation of Muslim League (1906): 

§  Setup in 1906 under the leadership of Aga Khan, Nawab Salimullah of Dhaka and Nawab Mohsin-ul-Mulk. 

§  It was a loyalist, communal and conservative political organization which supported the partition of Bengal, opposed the Swadeshi movement, demanded special safeguards to its community and a separate electorate for Muslims.

Demand for Swaraj:

§  In Dec 1906 at Calcutta, the INC under Dadabhai Naoroji adopted ‘Swaraj’ (Self-govt) as the goal of Indian people.

Surat Session of Indian National Congress (1907):

§  The INC split into two groups – The extremists and The moderates, at the Surat session in 1907. Extremists were led by Bal, Pal, Lal while the moderates by G.K.Gokhale.

Indian Councils Act or Minto Morley Reforms (1909):

§  Besides other constitutional measures, it envisaged a separate electorate for Muslims.

§  Aimed at dividing the nationalist ranks and at rallying the Moderates and the Muslims to the Government’s side.

Ghadar Party (1913):

§  Formed by Lala Hardayal, Taraknath Das and Sohan Singh Bhakna.

§  HQ was at San Francisco.

Home Rule Movement (1916):

§  Started by B.G.Tilak(April, 1916) at Poona and Annie Besant and S.Subramania Iyer at Adyar, near Madras (Sept, 1916).

§  Objective: Self – government for India in the British Empire.

§  Tilak linked up the question of Swaraj with the demand for the formation of Linguistic States and education in vernacular language. He gave the slogan: Swaraj is my birth right and I will have it.

Lucknow Pact (1916):

§  Happened following a war between Britain and Turkey leading to anti-British feelings among Muslims.

§  Both INC and Muslim League concluded this (Congress accepted the separate electorates and both jointly demanded for a representative government and dominion status for the country).

August Declaration (1917):

§  After the Lucknow Pact, a British policy was announced which aimed at “increasing association of Indians in every branch of the administration for progressive realization of responsible government in India as an integral part of the British empire”. This came to be called the August Declaration.

Rowlatt Act (March 18, 1919):

§  This gave unbridled powers to the govt. to arrest and imprison suspects without trial for two years maximum. This law enabled the Government to suspend the right of Habeas Corpus, which had been the foundation of civil liberties in Britain.

§  Caused a wave of anger in all sections. It was the first country-wide agitation by Gandhiji and marked the foundation of the Non Cooperation Movement.

Jallianwala Bagh Massacre (April 13, 1919):

§  People were agitated over the arrest of Dr. Kitchlu and Dr. Satyapal on April 10, 1919.

§  General O’ Dyer fires at people who assembled in the Jallianwala Bagh, Amritsar.

§  As a result hundreds of men, women and children were killed and thousands injured.

§  Rabindranath Tagore returned his Knighthood in protest. Sir Shankaran Nair resigned from Viceroy’s Executive Council after this.

§  Hunter Commission was appointed to enquire into it.

§  On March 13, 1940, Sardar Udham Singh killed O’Dyer when the later was addressing a meeting in Caxton Hall, London.

 

Khilafat Movement (1920):

§  Muslims were agitated by the treatment done with Turkey by the British in the treaty that followed the First World War.

§  Two brothers, Mohd.Ali and Shaukat Ali started this movement.

Non-cooperation Movement (1920):

§  It was the first mass-based political movement under Gandhiji.

§  Congress passed the resolution in its Calcutta session in Sept 1920.

Chauri –Chaura Incident (1922):

§  A mob of people at Chauri – Chaura (near Gorakhpur) clashed with police and burnt 22 policemen on February 5, 1922.

§  This compelled Gandhiji to withdraw the Non Cooperation movement on Feb.12, 1922.

Simon Commission (1927):

§  Constituted under John Simon, to review the political situation in India and to introduce further reforms and extension of parliamentary democracy.

§  Indian leaders opposed the commission, as there were no Indians in it.

§  The Government used brutal repression and police attacks to break the popular opposition. At Lahore, Lala Lajpat Rai was severely beaten in a lathi-charge. He succumbed to his injuries on Oct.30, 1928.

Lahore Session (1929):

§  On Dec.19, 1929 under the President ship of J.L.Nehru, the INC, at its Lahore Session, declared Poorna Swaraj (Complete independence) as its ultimate goal.

§  On Dec.31, 1929, the newly adopted tri-colour flag was unfurled and an.26, 1930 was fixed as the First Independence Day, was to be celebrated every year.

Revolutionary Activities:

§  The first political murder of a European was committed in 1897 at Poona by the Chapekar brothers, Damodar and Balkishan. Their target was Mr.Rand, President of the Plague Commission, but Lt.Ayerst was accidentally shot.

§  In 1907, Madam Bhikaiji Cama, a Parsi revolutionary unfurled the flag of India at Stuttgart Congress (of Second international).

§  In 1908, Khudiram Bose and Prafulla chaki threw a bomb on the carriage of kingford, the unpopular judge of Muzaffapur. Khudiram, Kanhaiyalal Dutt and Satyendranath Bose were hanged. (Alipur Case).

§  In 1909, M L Dhingra shot dead Col.William Curzon Whyllie, the political advisor of “India Office” in London.

§  In 1912, Rasbihari Bose and Sachindra Nath Sanyal threw a bomb and Lord Hardinge at Delhi. (Delhi Conspiracy Case).

§  In Oct, 1924, a meeting of revolutionaries from all parts of India was called at Kanpur. They setup Hindustan Socialist Republic Association/Army (HSRA).

§  They carried out a dacoity on the Kakori bound train on the Saharanpur-Lucknow railway line on Aug. 9, 1925.

§  Bhagat Singh, with his colleagues, shot dead Saunders (Asst. S.P. of Lahore, who ordered lathi charge on Lala Lajpat Rai) on Dec.17, 1928.

§  Then Bhagat Singh and Batukeshwar Dutt threw a bomb in the Central Assembly on Apr 8, 1929. Thus, he, Rajguru and Sukhdev were hanged on March. 23,1931 at Lahore Jall (Lahore Conspiracy Case) and their bodies cremated at Hussainiwala near Ferozepur.

§  In 1929 only Jatin Das died in Lahore jail after 63 days fast to protest against horrible conditions in jail.

§  Surya Sen, a revolutionary of Bengal, formed the Indian Republic Army in Bengal. In 1930, he masterminded the raid on Chittagong armoury. He was hanged in 1933.

§  In 1931, Chandrashekhar Azad shot himself at Alfred Park in Allahabad.

Dandi March (1930):

§  Also called the Salt Satyagraha.

§  Along with 78 followers, Gandhiji started his march from Sabarmati Ashram on March 12, 1930 for the small village Dandhi to break the salt law.

§  He reached the seashore on Apr.6, 1930.

§  He picked a handful of salt and inaugurated the Civil Disobedience Movement.

 First Round Table conference (1930):

§  It was the first conference arranged between the British and Indians as equals. It was held on Nov.12, 1930 in London to discuss Simon commission.

§  Boycotted by INC, Muslim League, Hindu Mahasabha, Liberals and some others were there.

Gandhi Irwin Pact (1931):

§  Moderate Statesman, Sapru, Jaikar and Srinivas Shastri initiated efforts to break the ice between Gandhiji and the government.

§  The two (government represented by Irwin and INC by Gandhiji) signed a pact on March 5, 1931.

§  In this the INC called off the civil disobedience movement and agreed to join the second round table conference.

§  The government on its part released the political prisoners and conceded the right to make salt for consumption for villages along the coast.

Second Round Table Conference (1931):

§  Gandhiji represented the INC and went to London to meet British P.M. Ramsay Macdonald.

§  However, the session was soon deadlocked on the minorities issue and this time separate electorates was demanded not only by Muslims but also by Depressed Classes, Indian Christians and Anglo – Indians.

The Communal Award (Aug 16,1932):

§  Announced by Ramsay McDonald. It showed divide and rule policy of the British.

§  Envisaged representation of Muslims, Sikhs, Indian Christians, Anglo Indians, women and even Backward classes.

§  Gandhiji, who was in Yeravada jail at that time, started a fast unto death against it.

Poona Pact (September 25, 1932):

§  After the announcement of communal award and subsequent fast of Gandhiji, mass meeting took place almost everywhere.

§  Political leaders like Madan Mohan Malviya, B.R.Ambedkar and M.C.Rajah became active.

§  Eventually Poona pact was reached and Gandhiji broke his fact on the sixth day (Sept 25, 1932).

§  In this, the idea of separate electorate for the depressed classes was abandoned, but seats reserved to them in the provincial legislature were increased.

Third Round Table Conference (1932):

§  Proved fruitless as most of the national leaders were in prison. The discussions led to the passing of the Government of India Act, 1935.

Demand For Pakistan:

§  In 1930, Iqbal suggested that the Frontier Province, Baluchistan, Sindh and Kashmir be made the Muslim State within the federation.

§  Chaudhary Rehmat Ali gave the term Pakistan in 1923.

§  Mohd. Ali Jinnah of Bombay gave it practicality.

§  Muslim League first passed the proposal of separate Pakistan in its Lahore session in 1940.

The Cripps Mission – 1942:

§  In Dec. 1941, Japan entered the World War – II and advanced towards Indian borders. By March 7, 1942, Rangoon fell and Japan occupied the entire S E Asia.

§  The British govt. with a view to getting co-operation from Indians sent Sir Stafford Cripps, leader of the House of Commons to settle terms with the Indian leaders.

§  He offered a draft which proposed dominion status to be granted after the war.

§  Rejected by the Congress as it didn’t want to rely upon future promises.

§  Gandhiji termed it as a post dated cheque in a crashing bank.

The Revolt of 1942 & The Quit India Movement:

§  Called the Vardha Proposal and Leaderless Revolt.

§  The resolution was passed on Aug.8, 1942, at Bombay. Gandhiji gave the slogan ‘Do or Die’.

§  On Aug 9, the Congress was banned and its important leaders were arrested.

§  The arrests provoked indignation among the masses and, there being no program of action, the movement became spontaneous and violent. Violence spread throughout the country.

§  The movement was however crushed.

§  The Indian National Army:Founded by Rasbehari Bose with Captain Mohan Singh.

§  S.C.Bose secretly escaped from India in Jain 1941, and reached Berlin. In July 1943, he joined the INA at Singapore. There, Rasbehari Bose handed over the leadership to him.

§  The soldiers were mostly raised from Indian soldiers of the British army who had been taken prisoners by the Japanese after they conquered S.E.Asia.

§  Two INA head quarters were Rangoon and Singapore (formed in Singapore).

§  INA had three fighting brigades named after Gandhiji, Azad and Nehru. Rani Jhansi Brigade was an exclusive women force.

The Cabinet Mission Plan (1946):

§  The struggle for freedom entered a decisive phase in the year 1945-46. The new Labour Party PM.Lord Attlee, made a declaration on March 15, 1946, that British Cabinet Mission (comprising of Lord Pethick Lawrence as Chairman, Sir Stafford Cripps and A.V.Alexander) will visit India.

§  The mission held talks with the INC and ML to bring about acceptance of their proposals.

§  On May 16, 1946, the mission put towards its proposals. It rejected the demand for separate Pakistan and instead a federal union consisting of British India and the Princely States was suggested.

§  Both Congress and Muslims League accepted it.

Formation of Interim Government (Sept 2, 1946):

§  Based on Cabinet Mission Plan, an interim government consisting of Congress nominees was formed on Sept.2, 1946. J.L.Nehru was its Vice-President and the Governor-General remained as its President.

Jinnah’s Direct Action Resolution (Aug 16, 1946):

§  Jinnah was alarmed at the results of the elections because the Muslim League was in danger of being totally eclipsed in the constituent assembly.

§  Therefore, Muslim League withdrew its acceptance of the Cabinet Mission Plan on July 29, 1946.

§  It passed a ‘Direct action’ resolution, which condemned both the British Government and the Congress (Aug 16, 1946). It resulted in heavy communal riots.

§  Jinnah celebrated Pakistan Day on Mar 27, 1947.

Formation of Constituent Assembly (Dec 9, 1946):

§  The Constituent assembly met on Dec 9, 1946 and Dr.Rajendra Prasad was elected as its president.

Mountbatten Plan (June 3, 1947):

§  On June 3, 1947, Lord Mountbatten put forward his plan which outlined the steps for the solution of India’s political problem. The outlines of the Plan were:

§  India to be divided into India and Pakistan.

§  Bengal and Punjab will be partitioned and a referendum in NEFP and Sylhet district of Assam would be held.

§  There would be a separate constitutional assembly for Pakistan to frame its constitution.

§  The Princely states would enjoy the liberty to join either India or Pakistan or even remain independent.

§  Aug.15, 1947 was the date fixed for handing over power to India and Pakistan.

§  The British govt. passed the Indian Independence Act of 1947 in July 1947, which contained the major provisions put forward by the Mountbatten plan.

Partition and Independence (Aug 1947):

§  All political parties accepted the Mountbatten plan.

§  At the time of independence, there were 562 small and big Princely States in India.

§  Sardar Vallabh Bhai Patel, the first home minister, used iron hand in this regard. By August 15, 1947, all the States, with a few exceptions like Kashmir, Hyderabad and Junagarh had signed the Instrument of Accession. Goa was with the Portuguese and Pondicherry with the French.

12:09 PM - By yatra 0